NAZIS, ARABES, MEME COMBAT !
Journalist: Nazi Scientists Helped Arabs Produce WMDs
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By Elad Benari
First Publish: 9/30/2013
Nazi scientists helped Arab countries produce chemical weapons, according to a prominent Egyptian journalist.
The journalist, Mohamed Hassanein Heikal,
made the comments in an interview which aired on September 19, 2013.
The
comments were translated and posted to the internet by the Middle East
Media Research Institute (MEMRI).
“In the 1950s and 1960s, attempts to end the
nuclear arms race began.
Countries that already had nuclear arms decided
to make do with what they had, and all the other countries, which found
it too difficult to join the nuclear arms race, believed that the
production of chemical and biological weapons was the poor man's way to
deter the nuclear countries.
This was especially true with regard to the
Arab world.
Not a single Arab country refrained from producing chemical
and biological weapons,” claimed Heikal in the interview.
“The production of chemical and biological weapons was easy,” he added.
“It was all based on German scientists who fled Germany [following World War II].
Some of them had knowledge of nuclear energy, like Dr. [Wolfgang] Pilz, who came to us for a while, and then started working on missiles and moved to China.”
“Since obtaining nuclear energy was so
difficult and expensive, and since we all more or less know that Israel
has nuclear weapons, all the countries, down to the very last one...
All
the countries produced it, and they all realized after a while that
they could not benefit from keeping large stockpiles of chemical and
biological weapons. Qaddafi had them.
Everybody did. Syria has them,”
claimed Heikal.
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Wolfgang G. Schwanitz on Nazis on the Run: How War Criminals Escaped Overseas via Italy
Jewish Political Studies Review 22:1-2 (Spring 2010)
Gerald Steinacher, a historian from the west Austrian town of Innsbruck, is known for his solid research on the federal state of Tyrol under the Third Reich. His new book reconstructs how Nazis fled from Europe via Italy to South America after the end of World War II. The author also claims that his research proves that stories about a secret organization of former SS members are nothing more than a myth. According to this thesis, ODESSA, the Organisation Der Ehemaligen SS Angehörigen (organization of former SS members), did not exist. Before dealing with this finding in the context of the Middle East, an overview of the book is in order.
[2] Volker Koop, Hitlers Fünfte Kolonne. Die Auslandsorganisation der NSDAP (Hitler’s Fifth’s Column: The Foreign Organization of the NSDAP) (Berlin: Bebra, 2009), 260. [German]
[3] Alois Hudal, Die Grundlagen des Nationalsozialismus (The Foundations of National Socialism) (Leipzig: Günther, 1937). [German]
[4] Muhammad Sabri, Islam-Judentum-Bolschewismus (Berlin: Juncker-Dünnhaupt, 1938), 5-21 [German], therein also the chapter by Amin al-Husaini, “Islam-Judentum,” 22-32. The chapter’s subtitle is “Aufruf des Großmuftis an die islamische Welt” (Appeal by the Grand Mufti to the Islamic World). [1937, German]
[5] For instance, for Bosniaks in SS units: Veliki Muftija Jeruzalimski: Islam i Židovstvo (The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem: Islam and Jewry) (Zagreb: Croat Printing, 1943). [Serbian]
[6] Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, Deutsche in Nahost 1946-1965 (Germans in the Middle East 1946-1965) (Munich: Haensel-Hohenhausen, 1998), Vol. 1, 208: “List of experts in both units, Cairo 04/30/53.” [German]
[7] For more, see reviews by Wolfgang G. Schwanitz of Shabtai Teveth, Ben-Gurion’s Spy: The Story of the Political Scandal That Shaped Modern Israel, in Orient, 38 (1997): 3, 567-570, and of Khalid Muhi ad-Din, Wa al-An Atakallamu (Now I Am Talking), in Der Islam, 73 (1996): 2, 360-363.
[8] See my review of the biographical handbook of the German Foreign Service at
http://hsozkult.geschichte.hu-berlin.de/rezensionen/type=rezbuecher&id=10706 [German]; Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, “‘Doppelte’: deutsche Gesandte in Kairo 1953-1963,” in Wajih Atek and Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, eds., Misr wa Almaniya fi al-Qirnain at-Tasi’a Ashara wa al-’Ishrin fi dhau al-Watha’iq (Egypt and Germany in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries as Reflected in Archives) (Cairo: Dar ath-Thaqafa, 1998), Part 2, 212: “NSDAP Member List of 10/20/52.” [German]
[9] US National Archives II, RG263, CIA Name/Subject Files, B12, Report on Leers, Cairo 09/19/56, 1.
[10] Ibid., Regional Security Officer, Memorandum on Cesar Ugarte, Odessa, Nazis, Lists, Cairo 04/29/65, 1-8; Amin al-Husaini, Muzakkirat al-Hajj Muhammad Amin al-Husaini (The Memoirs of al-Hajj Muhammad Amin al-Husaini), ed. Abd al-Karim al-Umar (Damascus: Al-Ahali, 1999), 177. [Arabic]
[11] Simon Wiesenthal, Ich jagte Eichmann (I Haunted Eichmann) (Gütersloh: Mohn, 1961). [German]
[12] Heinz Schneppen, ODESSA und das Vierte Reich (ODESSA and the Fourth Reich) (Berlin: Metropol, 2007), 19: Counter Intelligence Corps, Alleged Member of ODESSA Group, German Source, 02/19/48. [German]
[13] Ibid., Ambassador Report, in 5-6/42 “disgusted Rommel sent Rauff home, proposed capture Jews of Cairo,” Cairo 06/01/45, 2.
- See more at:
http://jcpa.org/article/wolfgang-g-schwanitz-on-nazis-on-the-run-how-war-criminals-escaped-overseas-via-italy/#sthash.321pRpF6.dpufGerald Steinacher, a historian from the west Austrian town of Innsbruck, is known for his solid research on the federal state of Tyrol under the Third Reich. His new book reconstructs how Nazis fled from Europe via Italy to South America after the end of World War II. The author also claims that his research proves that stories about a secret organization of former SS members are nothing more than a myth. According to this thesis, ODESSA, the Organisation Der Ehemaligen SS Angehörigen (organization of former SS members), did not exist. Before dealing with this finding in the context of the Middle East, an overview of the book is in order.
Steinacher first discusses the southern escape route
via Rome to Genoa and other Italian towns. He then explores the
mechanism of obtaining a new identity through Red Cross papers, and
details how Vatican circles provided assistance. The reader learns all
about the “Rat Run” from Germany through Italy and finally to the safe
haven of Argentina. Italy, Steinacher notes, was Europe’s backyard. But
it was also, like Spain and Portugal, the Middle East’s front yard.
Three major organizations helped the Nazis escape
from Europe. The Catholic Church believed this effort would contribute
to the “re-Christianization” of Europe and feared the threat to Europe
of paganism and communism. In the pursuit of its political and spiritual
interests, it was quick to forgive Nazi war criminals. The CIA, in the
context of the Cold War, was eager to do business and assist former
Nazis, such as Klaus Barbie. In addition, the International Red Cross
demonstrated great sympathy for war criminals and issued some
twenty-five thousand identity documents. Steinacher deals with all this,
but some earlier organizations for helping Nazi fugitives are missing
such as Edelweiss, Spinne, and Sechsgestirn.
Steinacher also defines three Nazi groups: those who
(a) committed suicide at the war’s end or later, (b) were indicted or
punished, or (c) fled overseas, mostly to Argentina. The real numbers
are not available. The author estimates that 180 leading Nazis emigrated
to Argentina. Others speak of about three hundred to eight hundred
making their way to that country. Uki Goni reported that Argentina still
protected about forty-nine files of Nazi immigrants in 2003.[1]
Recently, the independent German researcher Volker Koop estimated that
six hundred Nazis emigrated to Argentina including those with expert
knowledge.[2]
Information for the Middle East, which is not a main
topic of this book, is hard to find. We know of three dozen cases of
Nazi immigrants – in North Africa including Algeria and Tunisia, in Arab
neighbors of Israel, and in Saudi Arabia and Iran. Indications also
point to Afghanistan and Pakistan.
For 1964 onward, estimates of the number of Nazis
living in Arab countries climb beyond three thousand with Egypt as their
main destination. This may be valid if one includes professional
experts and advisers, technicians, and physicians, such as Aribert Heim
who died in Cairo in 1992 but became the subject of news reports only in
2008. In addition, for the Middle East, there are other categories of
former Nazis such as: (d) combatants who fought in wars in 1949, 1956,
or 1964 in Palestine/Israel, Egypt, and Algeria, (e) bureaucratic
“shadow warriors” in fields of security, prison administration,
education, and propaganda, (f) military experts, and (g) diplomats. For
lack of archival access, and because many changed their names when
converting to Islam, especially the “shadow warriors” are difficult to
trace.
Clerical Collaborators
Steinacher similarly describes “de-Nazification
through conversion” to Catholicism as a means of obtaining assistance.
He notes the role of the pro-Nazi bishop Alois Hudal and of the
monastery escape route. Hudal tried to build bridges between the Nazi
ideology and the Church.[3] In 1937, he sent his book The Foundations of
National Socialism to Hitler. The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem sought a
similar ideological convergence; as early as 1937 Hajj Amin al-Husaini
appealed to all Muslims to cleanse their lands of Jews.[4] The Nazis
made a booklet of his appeal, added a section on Islam and Bolshevism,
and translated it for their Muslim soldiers.[5]
However, there was a difference between these
clerical collaborators with the Nazis. Whereas Hudal said that fighting
Jews as a race was anti-Christian, al-Husaini aspired to fight them as a
race. According to Hudal’s ideological reasoning, a conflict could be
settled if ideologies became compatible. According to al-Husaini’s
racist approach, the conflict was existential and could only end by the
annihilation of the other side, which could never change its race.
As for Nazi military experts (category f), Cairo
employed two units as advisers from 1949 to 1956. Ex-general Wilhelm
Fahrmbacher led a group of military experts called “Armed Forces” with
thirty-one men, and Wilhelm Voss of the Nazis’ wartime Škoda factories
(he was not one of Hitler’s adjutants as claimed on p. 290) led the unit
called “Research Center for Explosives and Weapons” with fifteen men in
1953.[6] Their numbers grew, but their contracts were not renewed when
the Egyptians became aware that Israel had forged links with them for
spies such as Max Bineth. These developments were intertwined with
Israel’s Lavon Affair, which involved faulty espionage actions in Egypt
and led to Defense Minister Pinhas Lavon’s resignation in 1954. The
affair also gave Gamel Abdel Nasser a pretext to overthrow and succeed
President Muhammad Najib.[7]
However, with Argentina hoping to attract up to half a
million Germans right after the war, and President Juan Perón’s former
Nazi experts building the country’s first jet fighter, the Pulqui II, in
1951, an example was also provided for the Arabs. President Nasser
hired the aircraft designer and manufacturer Willy Messerschmitt and the
missile expert Wolfgang Pilz, who in 1964 got Egypt’s first jet
fighter, the Hulwan 300, airborne. Since Messerschmitt’s company also
maintained a presence in Spain, Nazi circles there connected with Cairo
as well. When the project ran short of money, India ultimately took over
key parts for its Marut 24 jet.
As for the category of former Nazi diplomats (g),
this is usually disregarded though it is a missing dimension at least
for the Middle East. Some rebuilt old networks. For his part, Chancellor
Konrad Adenauer insisted on reemploying so-called indispensable experts
despite their Nazi backgrounds. Too many became envoys of the Bonn
Republic – an outrage that had long-term results. In 1947, West Germans
drew up a list of 576 names as candidates for their future Foreign
Service. Indeed, that number of people staffed the service until the end
of 1952. Of these, 195 had been Nazi Party members, 158 were from the
old Foreign Ministry, and fifty-seven had had involvement with the
Middle East.[8] More research on these diplomats’ ties with emigrant
Nazis and their Islamist counterparts is required to substantiate the
long-lasting “Brown-Green” relationship.
New evidence has emerged on how these individuals
overtly and covertly interacted. Steinacher mentions the 1974 movie The
Odessa File based on the book by Frederick Forsyth that appeared two
years before. Steinacher warns against falling for a myth that there was
one organization under this cover name (7, 16, 296). So far the
author’s main thesis.
But here is the problem: beginning in the late 1940s and for the
Middle East in the mid-1950s, American agents reported on ODESSA and
also pointed to tripartite circles of ex-Nazis in South America, the
Middle East, and Europe. After the fall of Perón’s regime, the Argentine
haven became less hospitable and some ex-Nazis took jobs in the Middle
East often with al-Husaini’s support.
For example, the odious agitator Johann von Leers
moved from Buenos Aires to Cairo to work in anti-Israeli campaigns
sponsored by Nasser’s circle and the Arab League.[9] He met men of the
former Third Reich such as Anwar as-Sadat, who had been a spy for the
Nazis, members of the two above mentioned units (category f), and many
(e) “shadow people” in Middle Eastern bureaucracies.
American intelligence services monitored Nazi
organizations that spanned those three regions. They mentioned, for
instance, “List 1″ of two thousand ex-members of the SS and the Gestapo,
of which the most important ODESSA members were also on their Most
Wanted list. Intelligence reports since 1964 often named ODESSA
networks. Leers was said to be the new regional leader of the Spider Web
network, as it was also known, in Cairo, and former SS colonel Otto
Skorzeny was said to be its leader in Spain. In Cairo, al-Husaini met
with Skorzeny in early 1953 to work out weapons deals.[10]
An Outstanding Contribution
Three conclusions emerge. First, ODESSA was very much
a reality and an operational term for American intelligence since 1947
when it appeared for the first time in reports. To what degree Simon
Wiesenthal contributed with his related reports to the Americans remains
an open question.[11]
Although Steinacher is correct in including all the
regional networks in his purview, he is not right to claim that ODESSA
was nothing but a myth. To maintain this thesis one needs to prove
hundreds of American intelligence reports, which used the term ODESSA,
to be wrong, or one has to allege that those reports were just
inventions by agents. ODESSA was at least a roof network or common
operational platform of cooperating individuals and groups just as
Steinacher characterizes the networks (259). He mentions Heinz
Schneppen’s book on ODESSA but does not discuss his main arguments in
detail, although Schneppen offered examples of early texts on ODESSA
such as the U.S. intelligence report of 26 February 1948.[12]
Second, for the Middle East one needs to include the
Middle Eastern Brown-Green webs of ex-Nazi diplomats and their Islamist
counterparts. Not only the Americans utilized ex-Nazis for intelligence
and anticommunist purposes. The Muslim leaders did the same, but they
also wanted the ex-Nazis’ anti-Jewish know-how for the struggle against
Israel. In the Middle East, the Nazis’ influence, and the camaraderie
with them, never ceased. This influence was also “diplomatically
rebuilt” by the old-new envoys of Bonn (g) and passed down through the
generations.
As Steinacher shows in a notable example of these
interactions, former SS colonel Walter Rauff, hidden by Bishop Giuseppe
Siri of Genoa, fled to Damascus in 1947. In late 1949 he used a Red
Cross document and the fake name Bauermeister to flee from Genoa to
Ecuador. There he worked for the Bayer Corporation and became a “rat
runner.” In 1960, he visited his homeland under his real name. During
the war, if General Erwin Rommel had been victorious, Rauff would have
led an SS unit with the purpose of rounding up the Jews of Cairo and
later of Palestine. Rauff also invented the mobile gas vans that killed
thousands of Jews, and after the Eichmann trial he was indicted for
crimes against humanity,[13] prompting him to flee to Chile. Governments
there protected him from further prosecution, and in 1984 he died
peacefully in Santiago. His funeral became a gathering of old Nazis who
greeted each other with “Heil Hitler!”
Finally, in another representative case, Steinacher
notes that Skorzeny introduced Willem M. Sassen, a war reporter and
wanted SS man, to Eichmann in Argentina in 1954 (248). Eichmann had
arrived there on 14 July 1950 (296) as “Ricardo Klement, technician,”
carrying Red Cross papers. Hudal’s circles had assisted him in his
escape route. Thus, all of the above-named groups contributed to this
endeavor. There are also new indications that Simon Wiesenthal
discovered Eichmann’s whereabouts in 1953 and proposed capturing him in
Argentina in 1954. Why this actually took place six years later is
another matter.
All in all, Steinacher’s fine book provides much
insight and the possibility to draw comparisons with related
developments in the Middle East and elsewhere. For instance, there are
many parallels and common characteristics between the functioning of
Al-Qa’ida and of the networks of Alte Kameraden. Steinacher clarifies
how the southern escape route worked, including the role of its
unrepentant operators. Nazis on the Run is an outstanding academic
contribution.
* * *
Notes
[1] Uki Goni, ODESSA (Berlin: Assoziation A, 2006), 9-10. [German][2] Volker Koop, Hitlers Fünfte Kolonne. Die Auslandsorganisation der NSDAP (Hitler’s Fifth’s Column: The Foreign Organization of the NSDAP) (Berlin: Bebra, 2009), 260. [German]
[3] Alois Hudal, Die Grundlagen des Nationalsozialismus (The Foundations of National Socialism) (Leipzig: Günther, 1937). [German]
[4] Muhammad Sabri, Islam-Judentum-Bolschewismus (Berlin: Juncker-Dünnhaupt, 1938), 5-21 [German], therein also the chapter by Amin al-Husaini, “Islam-Judentum,” 22-32. The chapter’s subtitle is “Aufruf des Großmuftis an die islamische Welt” (Appeal by the Grand Mufti to the Islamic World). [1937, German]
[5] For instance, for Bosniaks in SS units: Veliki Muftija Jeruzalimski: Islam i Židovstvo (The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem: Islam and Jewry) (Zagreb: Croat Printing, 1943). [Serbian]
[6] Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, Deutsche in Nahost 1946-1965 (Germans in the Middle East 1946-1965) (Munich: Haensel-Hohenhausen, 1998), Vol. 1, 208: “List of experts in both units, Cairo 04/30/53.” [German]
[7] For more, see reviews by Wolfgang G. Schwanitz of Shabtai Teveth, Ben-Gurion’s Spy: The Story of the Political Scandal That Shaped Modern Israel, in Orient, 38 (1997): 3, 567-570, and of Khalid Muhi ad-Din, Wa al-An Atakallamu (Now I Am Talking), in Der Islam, 73 (1996): 2, 360-363.
[8] See my review of the biographical handbook of the German Foreign Service at
http://hsozkult.geschichte.hu-berlin.de/rezensionen/type=rezbuecher&id=10706 [German]; Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, “‘Doppelte’: deutsche Gesandte in Kairo 1953-1963,” in Wajih Atek and Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, eds., Misr wa Almaniya fi al-Qirnain at-Tasi’a Ashara wa al-’Ishrin fi dhau al-Watha’iq (Egypt and Germany in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries as Reflected in Archives) (Cairo: Dar ath-Thaqafa, 1998), Part 2, 212: “NSDAP Member List of 10/20/52.” [German]
[9] US National Archives II, RG263, CIA Name/Subject Files, B12, Report on Leers, Cairo 09/19/56, 1.
[10] Ibid., Regional Security Officer, Memorandum on Cesar Ugarte, Odessa, Nazis, Lists, Cairo 04/29/65, 1-8; Amin al-Husaini, Muzakkirat al-Hajj Muhammad Amin al-Husaini (The Memoirs of al-Hajj Muhammad Amin al-Husaini), ed. Abd al-Karim al-Umar (Damascus: Al-Ahali, 1999), 177. [Arabic]
[11] Simon Wiesenthal, Ich jagte Eichmann (I Haunted Eichmann) (Gütersloh: Mohn, 1961). [German]
[12] Heinz Schneppen, ODESSA und das Vierte Reich (ODESSA and the Fourth Reich) (Berlin: Metropol, 2007), 19: Counter Intelligence Corps, Alleged Member of ODESSA Group, German Source, 02/19/48. [German]
[13] Ibid., Ambassador Report, in 5-6/42 “disgusted Rommel sent Rauff home, proposed capture Jews of Cairo,” Cairo 06/01/45, 2.
* * *
PROF. WOLFGANG G. SCHWANITZ is a historian of the
Middle East and German Middle East policy. He is the author of four
books and the editor of ten others, including Germany and the Middle
East, 1871-1945 (Markus Wiener, 2004).Wolfgang G. Schwanitz on Nazis on the Run: How War Criminals Escaped Overseas via Italy
Jewish Political Studies Review 22:1-2 (Spring 2010)
Gerald Steinacher, a historian from the west Austrian town of Innsbruck, is known for his solid research on the federal state of Tyrol under the Third Reich. His new book reconstructs how Nazis fled from Europe via Italy to South America after the end of World War II. The author also claims that his research proves that stories about a secret organization of former SS members are nothing more than a myth. According to this thesis, ODESSA, the Organisation Der Ehemaligen SS Angehörigen (organization of former SS members), did not exist. Before dealing with this finding in the context of the Middle East, an overview of the book is in order.
[2] Volker Koop, Hitlers Fünfte Kolonne. Die Auslandsorganisation der NSDAP (Hitler’s Fifth’s Column: The Foreign Organization of the NSDAP) (Berlin: Bebra, 2009), 260. [German]
[3] Alois Hudal, Die Grundlagen des Nationalsozialismus (The Foundations of National Socialism) (Leipzig: Günther, 1937). [German]
[4] Muhammad Sabri, Islam-Judentum-Bolschewismus (Berlin: Juncker-Dünnhaupt, 1938), 5-21 [German], therein also the chapter by Amin al-Husaini, “Islam-Judentum,” 22-32. The chapter’s subtitle is “Aufruf des Großmuftis an die islamische Welt” (Appeal by the Grand Mufti to the Islamic World). [1937, German]
[5] For instance, for Bosniaks in SS units: Veliki Muftija Jeruzalimski: Islam i Židovstvo (The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem: Islam and Jewry) (Zagreb: Croat Printing, 1943). [Serbian]
[6] Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, Deutsche in Nahost 1946-1965 (Germans in the Middle East 1946-1965) (Munich: Haensel-Hohenhausen, 1998), Vol. 1, 208: “List of experts in both units, Cairo 04/30/53.” [German]
[7] For more, see reviews by Wolfgang G. Schwanitz of Shabtai Teveth, Ben-Gurion’s Spy: The Story of the Political Scandal That Shaped Modern Israel, in Orient, 38 (1997): 3, 567-570, and of Khalid Muhi ad-Din, Wa al-An Atakallamu (Now I Am Talking), in Der Islam, 73 (1996): 2, 360-363.
[8] See my review of the biographical handbook of the German Foreign Service at
http://hsozkult.geschichte.hu-berlin.de/rezensionen/type=rezbuecher&id=10706 [German]; Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, “‘Doppelte’: deutsche Gesandte in Kairo 1953-1963,” in Wajih Atek and Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, eds., Misr wa Almaniya fi al-Qirnain at-Tasi’a Ashara wa al-’Ishrin fi dhau al-Watha’iq (Egypt and Germany in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries as Reflected in Archives) (Cairo: Dar ath-Thaqafa, 1998), Part 2, 212: “NSDAP Member List of 10/20/52.” [German]
[9] US National Archives II, RG263, CIA Name/Subject Files, B12, Report on Leers, Cairo 09/19/56, 1.
[10] Ibid., Regional Security Officer, Memorandum on Cesar Ugarte, Odessa, Nazis, Lists, Cairo 04/29/65, 1-8; Amin al-Husaini, Muzakkirat al-Hajj Muhammad Amin al-Husaini (The Memoirs of al-Hajj Muhammad Amin al-Husaini), ed. Abd al-Karim al-Umar (Damascus: Al-Ahali, 1999), 177. [Arabic]
[11] Simon Wiesenthal, Ich jagte Eichmann (I Haunted Eichmann) (Gütersloh: Mohn, 1961). [German]
[12] Heinz Schneppen, ODESSA und das Vierte Reich (ODESSA and the Fourth Reich) (Berlin: Metropol, 2007), 19: Counter Intelligence Corps, Alleged Member of ODESSA Group, German Source, 02/19/48. [German]
[13] Ibid., Ambassador Report, in 5-6/42 “disgusted Rommel sent Rauff home, proposed capture Jews of Cairo,” Cairo 06/01/45, 2.
- See more at:
http://jcpa.org/article/wolfgang-g-schwanitz-on-nazis-on-the-run-how-war-criminals-escaped-overseas-via-italy/#sthash.1Je6Bw4Q.dpufGerald Steinacher, a historian from the west Austrian town of Innsbruck, is known for his solid research on the federal state of Tyrol under the Third Reich. His new book reconstructs how Nazis fled from Europe via Italy to South America after the end of World War II. The author also claims that his research proves that stories about a secret organization of former SS members are nothing more than a myth. According to this thesis, ODESSA, the Organisation Der Ehemaligen SS Angehörigen (organization of former SS members), did not exist. Before dealing with this finding in the context of the Middle East, an overview of the book is in order.
Steinacher first discusses the southern escape route
via Rome to Genoa and other Italian towns. He then explores the
mechanism of obtaining a new identity through Red Cross papers, and
details how Vatican circles provided assistance. The reader learns all
about the “Rat Run” from Germany through Italy and finally to the safe
haven of Argentina. Italy, Steinacher notes, was Europe’s backyard. But
it was also, like Spain and Portugal, the Middle East’s front yard.
Three major organizations helped the Nazis escape
from Europe. The Catholic Church believed this effort would contribute
to the “re-Christianization” of Europe and feared the threat to Europe
of paganism and communism. In the pursuit of its political and spiritual
interests, it was quick to forgive Nazi war criminals. The CIA, in the
context of the Cold War, was eager to do business and assist former
Nazis, such as Klaus Barbie. In addition, the International Red Cross
demonstrated great sympathy for war criminals and issued some
twenty-five thousand identity documents. Steinacher deals with all this,
but some earlier organizations for helping Nazi fugitives are missing
such as Edelweiss, Spinne, and Sechsgestirn.
Steinacher also defines three Nazi groups: those who
(a) committed suicide at the war’s end or later, (b) were indicted or
punished, or (c) fled overseas, mostly to Argentina. The real numbers
are not available. The author estimates that 180 leading Nazis emigrated
to Argentina. Others speak of about three hundred to eight hundred
making their way to that country. Uki Goni reported that Argentina still
protected about forty-nine files of Nazi immigrants in 2003.[1]
Recently, the independent German researcher Volker Koop estimated that
six hundred Nazis emigrated to Argentina including those with expert
knowledge.[2]
Information for the Middle East, which is not a main
topic of this book, is hard to find. We know of three dozen cases of
Nazi immigrants – in North Africa including Algeria and Tunisia, in Arab
neighbors of Israel, and in Saudi Arabia and Iran. Indications also
point to Afghanistan and Pakistan.
For 1964 onward, estimates of the number of Nazis
living in Arab countries climb beyond three thousand with Egypt as their
main destination. This may be valid if one includes professional
experts and advisers, technicians, and physicians, such as Aribert Heim
who died in Cairo in 1992 but became the subject of news reports only in
2008. In addition, for the Middle East, there are other categories of
former Nazis such as: (d) combatants who fought in wars in 1949, 1956,
or 1964 in Palestine/Israel, Egypt, and Algeria, (e) bureaucratic
“shadow warriors” in fields of security, prison administration,
education, and propaganda, (f) military experts, and (g) diplomats. For
lack of archival access, and because many changed their names when
converting to Islam, especially the “shadow warriors” are difficult to
trace.
Clerical Collaborators
Steinacher similarly describes “de-Nazification
through conversion” to Catholicism as a means of obtaining assistance.
He notes the role of the pro-Nazi bishop Alois Hudal and of the
monastery escape route. Hudal tried to build bridges between the Nazi
ideology and the Church.[3] In 1937, he sent his book The Foundations of
National Socialism to Hitler. The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem sought a
similar ideological convergence; as early as 1937 Hajj Amin al-Husaini
appealed to all Muslims to cleanse their lands of Jews.[4] The Nazis
made a booklet of his appeal, added a section on Islam and Bolshevism,
and translated it for their Muslim soldiers.[5]
However, there was a difference between these
clerical collaborators with the Nazis. Whereas Hudal said that fighting
Jews as a race was anti-Christian, al-Husaini aspired to fight them as a
race. According to Hudal’s ideological reasoning, a conflict could be
settled if ideologies became compatible. According to al-Husaini’s
racist approach, the conflict was existential and could only end by the
annihilation of the other side, which could never change its race.
As for Nazi military experts (category f), Cairo
employed two units as advisers from 1949 to 1956. Ex-general Wilhelm
Fahrmbacher led a group of military experts called “Armed Forces” with
thirty-one men, and Wilhelm Voss of the Nazis’ wartime Škoda factories
(he was not one of Hitler’s adjutants as claimed on p. 290) led the unit
called “Research Center for Explosives and Weapons” with fifteen men in
1953.[6] Their numbers grew, but their contracts were not renewed when
the Egyptians became aware that Israel had forged links with them for
spies such as Max Bineth. These developments were intertwined with
Israel’s Lavon Affair, which involved faulty espionage actions in Egypt
and led to Defense Minister Pinhas Lavon’s resignation in 1954. The
affair also gave Gamel Abdel Nasser a pretext to overthrow and succeed
President Muhammad Najib.[7]
However, with Argentina hoping to attract up to half a
million Germans right after the war, and President Juan Perón’s former
Nazi experts building the country’s first jet fighter, the Pulqui II, in
1951, an example was also provided for the Arabs. President Nasser
hired the aircraft designer and manufacturer Willy Messerschmitt and the
missile expert Wolfgang Pilz, who in 1964 got Egypt’s first jet
fighter, the Hulwan 300, airborne. Since Messerschmitt’s company also
maintained a presence in Spain, Nazi circles there connected with Cairo
as well. When the project ran short of money, India ultimately took over
key parts for its Marut 24 jet.
As for the category of former Nazi diplomats (g),
this is usually disregarded though it is a missing dimension at least
for the Middle East. Some rebuilt old networks. For his part, Chancellor
Konrad Adenauer insisted on reemploying so-called indispensable experts
despite their Nazi backgrounds. Too many became envoys of the Bonn
Republic – an outrage that had long-term results. In 1947, West Germans
drew up a list of 576 names as candidates for their future Foreign
Service. Indeed, that number of people staffed the service until the end
of 1952. Of these, 195 had been Nazi Party members, 158 were from the
old Foreign Ministry, and fifty-seven had had involvement with the
Middle East.[8] More research on these diplomats’ ties with emigrant
Nazis and their Islamist counterparts is required to substantiate the
long-lasting “Brown-Green” relationship.
New evidence has emerged on how these individuals
overtly and covertly interacted. Steinacher mentions the 1974 movie The
Odessa File based on the book by Frederick Forsyth that appeared two
years before. Steinacher warns against falling for a myth that there was
one organization under this cover name (7, 16, 296). So far the
author’s main thesis.
But here is the problem: beginning in the late 1940s and for the
Middle East in the mid-1950s, American agents reported on ODESSA and
also pointed to tripartite circles of ex-Nazis in South America, the
Middle East, and Europe. After the fall of Perón’s regime, the Argentine
haven became less hospitable and some ex-Nazis took jobs in the Middle
East often with al-Husaini’s support.
For example, the odious agitator Johann von Leers
moved from Buenos Aires to Cairo to work in anti-Israeli campaigns
sponsored by Nasser’s circle and the Arab League.[9] He met men of the
former Third Reich such as Anwar as-Sadat, who had been a spy for the
Nazis, members of the two above mentioned units (category f), and many
(e) “shadow people” in Middle Eastern bureaucracies.
American intelligence services monitored Nazi
organizations that spanned those three regions. They mentioned, for
instance, “List 1″ of two thousand ex-members of the SS and the Gestapo,
of which the most important ODESSA members were also on their Most
Wanted list. Intelligence reports since 1964 often named ODESSA
networks. Leers was said to be the new regional leader of the Spider Web
network, as it was also known, in Cairo, and former SS colonel Otto
Skorzeny was said to be its leader in Spain. In Cairo, al-Husaini met
with Skorzeny in early 1953 to work out weapons deals.[10]
An Outstanding Contribution
Three conclusions emerge. First, ODESSA was very much
a reality and an operational term for American intelligence since 1947
when it appeared for the first time in reports. To what degree Simon
Wiesenthal contributed with his related reports to the Americans remains
an open question.[11]
Although Steinacher is correct in including all the
regional networks in his purview, he is not right to claim that ODESSA
was nothing but a myth. To maintain this thesis one needs to prove
hundreds of American intelligence reports, which used the term ODESSA,
to be wrong, or one has to allege that those reports were just
inventions by agents. ODESSA was at least a roof network or common
operational platform of cooperating individuals and groups just as
Steinacher characterizes the networks (259). He mentions Heinz
Schneppen’s book on ODESSA but does not discuss his main arguments in
detail, although Schneppen offered examples of early texts on ODESSA
such as the U.S. intelligence report of 26 February 1948.[12]
Second, for the Middle East one needs to include the
Middle Eastern Brown-Green webs of ex-Nazi diplomats and their Islamist
counterparts. Not only the Americans utilized ex-Nazis for intelligence
and anticommunist purposes. The Muslim leaders did the same, but they
also wanted the ex-Nazis’ anti-Jewish know-how for the struggle against
Israel. In the Middle East, the Nazis’ influence, and the camaraderie
with them, never ceased. This influence was also “diplomatically
rebuilt” by the old-new envoys of Bonn (g) and passed down through the
generations.
As Steinacher shows in a notable example of these
interactions, former SS colonel Walter Rauff, hidden by Bishop Giuseppe
Siri of Genoa, fled to Damascus in 1947. In late 1949 he used a Red
Cross document and the fake name Bauermeister to flee from Genoa to
Ecuador. There he worked for the Bayer Corporation and became a “rat
runner.” In 1960, he visited his homeland under his real name. During
the war, if General Erwin Rommel had been victorious, Rauff would have
led an SS unit with the purpose of rounding up the Jews of Cairo and
later of Palestine. Rauff also invented the mobile gas vans that killed
thousands of Jews, and after the Eichmann trial he was indicted for
crimes against humanity,[13] prompting him to flee to Chile. Governments
there protected him from further prosecution, and in 1984 he died
peacefully in Santiago. His funeral became a gathering of old Nazis who
greeted each other with “Heil Hitler!”
Finally, in another representative case, Steinacher
notes that Skorzeny introduced Willem M. Sassen, a war reporter and
wanted SS man, to Eichmann in Argentina in 1954 (248). Eichmann had
arrived there on 14 July 1950 (296) as “Ricardo Klement, technician,”
carrying Red Cross papers. Hudal’s circles had assisted him in his
escape route. Thus, all of the above-named groups contributed to this
endeavor. There are also new indications that Simon Wiesenthal
discovered Eichmann’s whereabouts in 1953 and proposed capturing him in
Argentina in 1954. Why this actually took place six years later is
another matter.
All in all, Steinacher’s fine book provides much
insight and the possibility to draw comparisons with related
developments in the Middle East and elsewhere. For instance, there are
many parallels and common characteristics between the functioning of
Al-Qa’ida and of the networks of Alte Kameraden. Steinacher clarifies
how the southern escape route worked, including the role of its
unrepentant operators. Nazis on the Run is an outstanding academic
contribution.
* * *
Notes
[1] Uki Goni, ODESSA (Berlin: Assoziation A, 2006), 9-10. [German][2] Volker Koop, Hitlers Fünfte Kolonne. Die Auslandsorganisation der NSDAP (Hitler’s Fifth’s Column: The Foreign Organization of the NSDAP) (Berlin: Bebra, 2009), 260. [German]
[3] Alois Hudal, Die Grundlagen des Nationalsozialismus (The Foundations of National Socialism) (Leipzig: Günther, 1937). [German]
[4] Muhammad Sabri, Islam-Judentum-Bolschewismus (Berlin: Juncker-Dünnhaupt, 1938), 5-21 [German], therein also the chapter by Amin al-Husaini, “Islam-Judentum,” 22-32. The chapter’s subtitle is “Aufruf des Großmuftis an die islamische Welt” (Appeal by the Grand Mufti to the Islamic World). [1937, German]
[5] For instance, for Bosniaks in SS units: Veliki Muftija Jeruzalimski: Islam i Židovstvo (The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem: Islam and Jewry) (Zagreb: Croat Printing, 1943). [Serbian]
[6] Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, Deutsche in Nahost 1946-1965 (Germans in the Middle East 1946-1965) (Munich: Haensel-Hohenhausen, 1998), Vol. 1, 208: “List of experts in both units, Cairo 04/30/53.” [German]
[7] For more, see reviews by Wolfgang G. Schwanitz of Shabtai Teveth, Ben-Gurion’s Spy: The Story of the Political Scandal That Shaped Modern Israel, in Orient, 38 (1997): 3, 567-570, and of Khalid Muhi ad-Din, Wa al-An Atakallamu (Now I Am Talking), in Der Islam, 73 (1996): 2, 360-363.
[8] See my review of the biographical handbook of the German Foreign Service at
http://hsozkult.geschichte.hu-berlin.de/rezensionen/type=rezbuecher&id=10706 [German]; Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, “‘Doppelte’: deutsche Gesandte in Kairo 1953-1963,” in Wajih Atek and Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, eds., Misr wa Almaniya fi al-Qirnain at-Tasi’a Ashara wa al-’Ishrin fi dhau al-Watha’iq (Egypt and Germany in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries as Reflected in Archives) (Cairo: Dar ath-Thaqafa, 1998), Part 2, 212: “NSDAP Member List of 10/20/52.” [German]
[9] US National Archives II, RG263, CIA Name/Subject Files, B12, Report on Leers, Cairo 09/19/56, 1.
[10] Ibid., Regional Security Officer, Memorandum on Cesar Ugarte, Odessa, Nazis, Lists, Cairo 04/29/65, 1-8; Amin al-Husaini, Muzakkirat al-Hajj Muhammad Amin al-Husaini (The Memoirs of al-Hajj Muhammad Amin al-Husaini), ed. Abd al-Karim al-Umar (Damascus: Al-Ahali, 1999), 177. [Arabic]
[11] Simon Wiesenthal, Ich jagte Eichmann (I Haunted Eichmann) (Gütersloh: Mohn, 1961). [German]
[12] Heinz Schneppen, ODESSA und das Vierte Reich (ODESSA and the Fourth Reich) (Berlin: Metropol, 2007), 19: Counter Intelligence Corps, Alleged Member of ODESSA Group, German Source, 02/19/48. [German]
[13] Ibid., Ambassador Report, in 5-6/42 “disgusted Rommel sent Rauff home, proposed capture Jews of Cairo,” Cairo 06/01/45, 2.
* * *
PROF. WOLFGANG G. SCHWANITZ is a historian of the
Middle East and German Middle East policy. He is the author of four
books and the editor of ten others, including Germany and the Middle
East, 1871-1945 (Markus Wiener, 2004).Wolfgang G. Schwanitz on Nazis on the Run: How War Criminals Escaped Overseas via Italy
Jewish Political Studies Review 22:1-2 (Spring 2010)
Gerald Steinacher, a historian from the west Austrian town of Innsbruck, is known for his solid research on the federal state of Tyrol under the Third Reich. His new book reconstructs how Nazis fled from Europe via Italy to South America after the end of World War II. The author also claims that his research proves that stories about a secret organization of former SS members are nothing more than a myth. According to this thesis, ODESSA, the Organisation Der Ehemaligen SS Angehörigen (organization of former SS members), did not exist. Before dealing with this finding in the context of the Middle East, an overview of the book is in order.
[2] Volker Koop, Hitlers Fünfte Kolonne. Die Auslandsorganisation der NSDAP (Hitler’s Fifth’s Column: The Foreign Organization of the NSDAP) (Berlin: Bebra, 2009), 260. [German]
[3] Alois Hudal, Die Grundlagen des Nationalsozialismus (The Foundations of National Socialism) (Leipzig: Günther, 1937). [German]
[4] Muhammad Sabri, Islam-Judentum-Bolschewismus (Berlin: Juncker-Dünnhaupt, 1938), 5-21 [German], therein also the chapter by Amin al-Husaini, “Islam-Judentum,” 22-32. The chapter’s subtitle is “Aufruf des Großmuftis an die islamische Welt” (Appeal by the Grand Mufti to the Islamic World). [1937, German]
[5] For instance, for Bosniaks in SS units: Veliki Muftija Jeruzalimski: Islam i Židovstvo (The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem: Islam and Jewry) (Zagreb: Croat Printing, 1943). [Serbian]
[6] Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, Deutsche in Nahost 1946-1965 (Germans in the Middle East 1946-1965) (Munich: Haensel-Hohenhausen, 1998), Vol. 1, 208: “List of experts in both units, Cairo 04/30/53.” [German]
[7] For more, see reviews by Wolfgang G. Schwanitz of Shabtai Teveth, Ben-Gurion’s Spy: The Story of the Political Scandal That Shaped Modern Israel, in Orient, 38 (1997): 3, 567-570, and of Khalid Muhi ad-Din, Wa al-An Atakallamu (Now I Am Talking), in Der Islam, 73 (1996): 2, 360-363.
[8] See my review of the biographical handbook of the German Foreign Service at
http://hsozkult.geschichte.hu-berlin.de/rezensionen/type=rezbuecher&id=10706 [German]; Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, “‘Doppelte’: deutsche Gesandte in Kairo 1953-1963,” in Wajih Atek and Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, eds., Misr wa Almaniya fi al-Qirnain at-Tasi’a Ashara wa al-’Ishrin fi dhau al-Watha’iq (Egypt and Germany in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries as Reflected in Archives) (Cairo: Dar ath-Thaqafa, 1998), Part 2, 212: “NSDAP Member List of 10/20/52.” [German]
[9] US National Archives II, RG263, CIA Name/Subject Files, B12, Report on Leers, Cairo 09/19/56, 1.
[10] Ibid., Regional Security Officer, Memorandum on Cesar Ugarte, Odessa, Nazis, Lists, Cairo 04/29/65, 1-8; Amin al-Husaini, Muzakkirat al-Hajj Muhammad Amin al-Husaini (The Memoirs of al-Hajj Muhammad Amin al-Husaini), ed. Abd al-Karim al-Umar (Damascus: Al-Ahali, 1999), 177. [Arabic]
[11] Simon Wiesenthal, Ich jagte Eichmann (I Haunted Eichmann) (Gütersloh: Mohn, 1961). [German]
[12] Heinz Schneppen, ODESSA und das Vierte Reich (ODESSA and the Fourth Reich) (Berlin: Metropol, 2007), 19: Counter Intelligence Corps, Alleged Member of ODESSA Group, German Source, 02/19/48. [German]
[13] Ibid., Ambassador Report, in 5-6/42 “disgusted Rommel sent Rauff home, proposed capture Jews of Cairo,” Cairo 06/01/45, 2.
- See more at:
http://jcpa.org/article/wolfgang-g-schwanitz-on-nazis-on-the-run-how-war-criminals-escaped-overseas-via-italy/#sthash.321pRpF6.dpufGerald Steinacher, a historian from the west Austrian town of Innsbruck, is known for his solid research on the federal state of Tyrol under the Third Reich. His new book reconstructs how Nazis fled from Europe via Italy to South America after the end of World War II. The author also claims that his research proves that stories about a secret organization of former SS members are nothing more than a myth. According to this thesis, ODESSA, the Organisation Der Ehemaligen SS Angehörigen (organization of former SS members), did not exist. Before dealing with this finding in the context of the Middle East, an overview of the book is in order.
Steinacher first discusses the southern escape route
via Rome to Genoa and other Italian towns. He then explores the
mechanism of obtaining a new identity through Red Cross papers, and
details how Vatican circles provided assistance. The reader learns all
about the “Rat Run” from Germany through Italy and finally to the safe
haven of Argentina. Italy, Steinacher notes, was Europe’s backyard. But
it was also, like Spain and Portugal, the Middle East’s front yard.
Three major organizations helped the Nazis escape
from Europe. The Catholic Church believed this effort would contribute
to the “re-Christianization” of Europe and feared the threat to Europe
of paganism and communism. In the pursuit of its political and spiritual
interests, it was quick to forgive Nazi war criminals. The CIA, in the
context of the Cold War, was eager to do business and assist former
Nazis, such as Klaus Barbie. In addition, the International Red Cross
demonstrated great sympathy for war criminals and issued some
twenty-five thousand identity documents. Steinacher deals with all this,
but some earlier organizations for helping Nazi fugitives are missing
such as Edelweiss, Spinne, and Sechsgestirn.
Steinacher also defines three Nazi groups: those who
(a) committed suicide at the war’s end or later, (b) were indicted or
punished, or (c) fled overseas, mostly to Argentina. The real numbers
are not available. The author estimates that 180 leading Nazis emigrated
to Argentina. Others speak of about three hundred to eight hundred
making their way to that country. Uki Goni reported that Argentina still
protected about forty-nine files of Nazi immigrants in 2003.[1]
Recently, the independent German researcher Volker Koop estimated that
six hundred Nazis emigrated to Argentina including those with expert
knowledge.[2]
Information for the Middle East, which is not a main
topic of this book, is hard to find. We know of three dozen cases of
Nazi immigrants – in North Africa including Algeria and Tunisia, in Arab
neighbors of Israel, and in Saudi Arabia and Iran. Indications also
point to Afghanistan and Pakistan.
For 1964 onward, estimates of the number of Nazis
living in Arab countries climb beyond three thousand with Egypt as their
main destination. This may be valid if one includes professional
experts and advisers, technicians, and physicians, such as Aribert Heim
who died in Cairo in 1992 but became the subject of news reports only in
2008. In addition, for the Middle East, there are other categories of
former Nazis such as: (d) combatants who fought in wars in 1949, 1956,
or 1964 in Palestine/Israel, Egypt, and Algeria, (e) bureaucratic
“shadow warriors” in fields of security, prison administration,
education, and propaganda, (f) military experts, and (g) diplomats. For
lack of archival access, and because many changed their names when
converting to Islam, especially the “shadow warriors” are difficult to
trace.
Clerical Collaborators
Steinacher similarly describes “de-Nazification
through conversion” to Catholicism as a means of obtaining assistance.
He notes the role of the pro-Nazi bishop Alois Hudal and of the
monastery escape route. Hudal tried to build bridges between the Nazi
ideology and the Church.[3] In 1937, he sent his book The Foundations of
National Socialism to Hitler. The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem sought a
similar ideological convergence; as early as 1937 Hajj Amin al-Husaini
appealed to all Muslims to cleanse their lands of Jews.[4] The Nazis
made a booklet of his appeal, added a section on Islam and Bolshevism,
and translated it for their Muslim soldiers.[5]
However, there was a difference between these
clerical collaborators with the Nazis. Whereas Hudal said that fighting
Jews as a race was anti-Christian, al-Husaini aspired to fight them as a
race. According to Hudal’s ideological reasoning, a conflict could be
settled if ideologies became compatible. According to al-Husaini’s
racist approach, the conflict was existential and could only end by the
annihilation of the other side, which could never change its race.
As for Nazi military experts (category f), Cairo
employed two units as advisers from 1949 to 1956. Ex-general Wilhelm
Fahrmbacher led a group of military experts called “Armed Forces” with
thirty-one men, and Wilhelm Voss of the Nazis’ wartime Škoda factories
(he was not one of Hitler’s adjutants as claimed on p. 290) led the unit
called “Research Center for Explosives and Weapons” with fifteen men in
1953.[6] Their numbers grew, but their contracts were not renewed when
the Egyptians became aware that Israel had forged links with them for
spies such as Max Bineth. These developments were intertwined with
Israel’s Lavon Affair, which involved faulty espionage actions in Egypt
and led to Defense Minister Pinhas Lavon’s resignation in 1954. The
affair also gave Gamel Abdel Nasser a pretext to overthrow and succeed
President Muhammad Najib.[7]
However, with Argentina hoping to attract up to half a
million Germans right after the war, and President Juan Perón’s former
Nazi experts building the country’s first jet fighter, the Pulqui II, in
1951, an example was also provided for the Arabs. President Nasser
hired the aircraft designer and manufacturer Willy Messerschmitt and the
missile expert Wolfgang Pilz, who in 1964 got Egypt’s first jet
fighter, the Hulwan 300, airborne. Since Messerschmitt’s company also
maintained a presence in Spain, Nazi circles there connected with Cairo
as well. When the project ran short of money, India ultimately took over
key parts for its Marut 24 jet.
As for the category of former Nazi diplomats (g),
this is usually disregarded though it is a missing dimension at least
for the Middle East. Some rebuilt old networks. For his part, Chancellor
Konrad Adenauer insisted on reemploying so-called indispensable experts
despite their Nazi backgrounds. Too many became envoys of the Bonn
Republic – an outrage that had long-term results. In 1947, West Germans
drew up a list of 576 names as candidates for their future Foreign
Service. Indeed, that number of people staffed the service until the end
of 1952. Of these, 195 had been Nazi Party members, 158 were from the
old Foreign Ministry, and fifty-seven had had involvement with the
Middle East.[8] More research on these diplomats’ ties with emigrant
Nazis and their Islamist counterparts is required to substantiate the
long-lasting “Brown-Green” relationship.
New evidence has emerged on how these individuals
overtly and covertly interacted. Steinacher mentions the 1974 movie The
Odessa File based on the book by Frederick Forsyth that appeared two
years before. Steinacher warns against falling for a myth that there was
one organization under this cover name (7, 16, 296). So far the
author’s main thesis.
But here is the problem: beginning in the late 1940s and for the
Middle East in the mid-1950s, American agents reported on ODESSA and
also pointed to tripartite circles of ex-Nazis in South America, the
Middle East, and Europe. After the fall of Perón’s regime, the Argentine
haven became less hospitable and some ex-Nazis took jobs in the Middle
East often with al-Husaini’s support.
For example, the odious agitator Johann von Leers
moved from Buenos Aires to Cairo to work in anti-Israeli campaigns
sponsored by Nasser’s circle and the Arab League.[9] He met men of the
former Third Reich such as Anwar as-Sadat, who had been a spy for the
Nazis, members of the two above mentioned units (category f), and many
(e) “shadow people” in Middle Eastern bureaucracies.
American intelligence services monitored Nazi
organizations that spanned those three regions. They mentioned, for
instance, “List 1″ of two thousand ex-members of the SS and the Gestapo,
of which the most important ODESSA members were also on their Most
Wanted list. Intelligence reports since 1964 often named ODESSA
networks. Leers was said to be the new regional leader of the Spider Web
network, as it was also known, in Cairo, and former SS colonel Otto
Skorzeny was said to be its leader in Spain. In Cairo, al-Husaini met
with Skorzeny in early 1953 to work out weapons deals.[10]
An Outstanding Contribution
Three conclusions emerge. First, ODESSA was very much
a reality and an operational term for American intelligence since 1947
when it appeared for the first time in reports. To what degree Simon
Wiesenthal contributed with his related reports to the Americans remains
an open question.[11]
Although Steinacher is correct in including all the
regional networks in his purview, he is not right to claim that ODESSA
was nothing but a myth. To maintain this thesis one needs to prove
hundreds of American intelligence reports, which used the term ODESSA,
to be wrong, or one has to allege that those reports were just
inventions by agents. ODESSA was at least a roof network or common
operational platform of cooperating individuals and groups just as
Steinacher characterizes the networks (259). He mentions Heinz
Schneppen’s book on ODESSA but does not discuss his main arguments in
detail, although Schneppen offered examples of early texts on ODESSA
such as the U.S. intelligence report of 26 February 1948.[12]
Second, for the Middle East one needs to include the
Middle Eastern Brown-Green webs of ex-Nazi diplomats and their Islamist
counterparts. Not only the Americans utilized ex-Nazis for intelligence
and anticommunist purposes. The Muslim leaders did the same, but they
also wanted the ex-Nazis’ anti-Jewish know-how for the struggle against
Israel. In the Middle East, the Nazis’ influence, and the camaraderie
with them, never ceased. This influence was also “diplomatically
rebuilt” by the old-new envoys of Bonn (g) and passed down through the
generations.
As Steinacher shows in a notable example of these
interactions, former SS colonel Walter Rauff, hidden by Bishop Giuseppe
Siri of Genoa, fled to Damascus in 1947. In late 1949 he used a Red
Cross document and the fake name Bauermeister to flee from Genoa to
Ecuador. There he worked for the Bayer Corporation and became a “rat
runner.” In 1960, he visited his homeland under his real name. During
the war, if General Erwin Rommel had been victorious, Rauff would have
led an SS unit with the purpose of rounding up the Jews of Cairo and
later of Palestine. Rauff also invented the mobile gas vans that killed
thousands of Jews, and after the Eichmann trial he was indicted for
crimes against humanity,[13] prompting him to flee to Chile. Governments
there protected him from further prosecution, and in 1984 he died
peacefully in Santiago. His funeral became a gathering of old Nazis who
greeted each other with “Heil Hitler!”
Finally, in another representative case, Steinacher
notes that Skorzeny introduced Willem M. Sassen, a war reporter and
wanted SS man, to Eichmann in Argentina in 1954 (248). Eichmann had
arrived there on 14 July 1950 (296) as “Ricardo Klement, technician,”
carrying Red Cross papers. Hudal’s circles had assisted him in his
escape route. Thus, all of the above-named groups contributed to this
endeavor. There are also new indications that Simon Wiesenthal
discovered Eichmann’s whereabouts in 1953 and proposed capturing him in
Argentina in 1954. Why this actually took place six years later is
another matter.
All in all, Steinacher’s fine book provides much
insight and the possibility to draw comparisons with related
developments in the Middle East and elsewhere. For instance, there are
many parallels and common characteristics between the functioning of
Al-Qa’ida and of the networks of Alte Kameraden. Steinacher clarifies
how the southern escape route worked, including the role of its
unrepentant operators. Nazis on the Run is an outstanding academic
contribution.
* * *
Notes
[1] Uki Goni, ODESSA (Berlin: Assoziation A, 2006), 9-10. [German][2] Volker Koop, Hitlers Fünfte Kolonne. Die Auslandsorganisation der NSDAP (Hitler’s Fifth’s Column: The Foreign Organization of the NSDAP) (Berlin: Bebra, 2009), 260. [German]
[3] Alois Hudal, Die Grundlagen des Nationalsozialismus (The Foundations of National Socialism) (Leipzig: Günther, 1937). [German]
[4] Muhammad Sabri, Islam-Judentum-Bolschewismus (Berlin: Juncker-Dünnhaupt, 1938), 5-21 [German], therein also the chapter by Amin al-Husaini, “Islam-Judentum,” 22-32. The chapter’s subtitle is “Aufruf des Großmuftis an die islamische Welt” (Appeal by the Grand Mufti to the Islamic World). [1937, German]
[5] For instance, for Bosniaks in SS units: Veliki Muftija Jeruzalimski: Islam i Židovstvo (The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem: Islam and Jewry) (Zagreb: Croat Printing, 1943). [Serbian]
[6] Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, Deutsche in Nahost 1946-1965 (Germans in the Middle East 1946-1965) (Munich: Haensel-Hohenhausen, 1998), Vol. 1, 208: “List of experts in both units, Cairo 04/30/53.” [German]
[7] For more, see reviews by Wolfgang G. Schwanitz of Shabtai Teveth, Ben-Gurion’s Spy: The Story of the Political Scandal That Shaped Modern Israel, in Orient, 38 (1997): 3, 567-570, and of Khalid Muhi ad-Din, Wa al-An Atakallamu (Now I Am Talking), in Der Islam, 73 (1996): 2, 360-363.
[8] See my review of the biographical handbook of the German Foreign Service at
http://hsozkult.geschichte.hu-berlin.de/rezensionen/type=rezbuecher&id=10706 [German]; Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, “‘Doppelte’: deutsche Gesandte in Kairo 1953-1963,” in Wajih Atek and Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, eds., Misr wa Almaniya fi al-Qirnain at-Tasi’a Ashara wa al-’Ishrin fi dhau al-Watha’iq (Egypt and Germany in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries as Reflected in Archives) (Cairo: Dar ath-Thaqafa, 1998), Part 2, 212: “NSDAP Member List of 10/20/52.” [German]
[9] US National Archives II, RG263, CIA Name/Subject Files, B12, Report on Leers, Cairo 09/19/56, 1.
[10] Ibid., Regional Security Officer, Memorandum on Cesar Ugarte, Odessa, Nazis, Lists, Cairo 04/29/65, 1-8; Amin al-Husaini, Muzakkirat al-Hajj Muhammad Amin al-Husaini (The Memoirs of al-Hajj Muhammad Amin al-Husaini), ed. Abd al-Karim al-Umar (Damascus: Al-Ahali, 1999), 177. [Arabic]
[11] Simon Wiesenthal, Ich jagte Eichmann (I Haunted Eichmann) (Gütersloh: Mohn, 1961). [German]
[12] Heinz Schneppen, ODESSA und das Vierte Reich (ODESSA and the Fourth Reich) (Berlin: Metropol, 2007), 19: Counter Intelligence Corps, Alleged Member of ODESSA Group, German Source, 02/19/48. [German]
[13] Ibid., Ambassador Report, in 5-6/42 “disgusted Rommel sent Rauff home, proposed capture Jews of Cairo,” Cairo 06/01/45, 2.
* * *
PROF. WOLFGANG G. SCHWANITZ is a historian of the
Middle East and German Middle East policy. He is the author of four
books and the editor of ten others, including Germany and the Middle
East, 1871-1945 (Markus Wiener, 2004).Wolfgang G. Schwanitz on Nazis on the Run: How War Criminals Escaped Overseas via Italy
Jewish Political Studies Review 22:1-2 (Spring 2010)
Gerald Steinacher, a historian from the west Austrian town of Innsbruck, is known for his solid research on the federal state of Tyrol under the Third Reich. His new book reconstructs how Nazis fled from Europe via Italy to South America after the end of World War II. The author also claims that his research proves that stories about a secret organization of former SS members are nothing more than a myth. According to this thesis, ODESSA, the Organisation Der Ehemaligen SS Angehörigen (organization of former SS members), did not exist. Before dealing with this finding in the context of the Middle East, an overview of the book is in order.
[2] Volker Koop, Hitlers Fünfte Kolonne. Die Auslandsorganisation der NSDAP (Hitler’s Fifth’s Column: The Foreign Organization of the NSDAP) (Berlin: Bebra, 2009), 260. [German]
[3] Alois Hudal, Die Grundlagen des Nationalsozialismus (The Foundations of National Socialism) (Leipzig: Günther, 1937). [German]
[4] Muhammad Sabri, Islam-Judentum-Bolschewismus (Berlin: Juncker-Dünnhaupt, 1938), 5-21 [German], therein also the chapter by Amin al-Husaini, “Islam-Judentum,” 22-32. The chapter’s subtitle is “Aufruf des Großmuftis an die islamische Welt” (Appeal by the Grand Mufti to the Islamic World). [1937, German]
[5] For instance, for Bosniaks in SS units: Veliki Muftija Jeruzalimski: Islam i Židovstvo (The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem: Islam and Jewry) (Zagreb: Croat Printing, 1943). [Serbian]
[6] Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, Deutsche in Nahost 1946-1965 (Germans in the Middle East 1946-1965) (Munich: Haensel-Hohenhausen, 1998), Vol. 1, 208: “List of experts in both units, Cairo 04/30/53.” [German]
[7] For more, see reviews by Wolfgang G. Schwanitz of Shabtai Teveth, Ben-Gurion’s Spy: The Story of the Political Scandal That Shaped Modern Israel, in Orient, 38 (1997): 3, 567-570, and of Khalid Muhi ad-Din, Wa al-An Atakallamu (Now I Am Talking), in Der Islam, 73 (1996): 2, 360-363.
[8] See my review of the biographical handbook of the German Foreign Service at
http://hsozkult.geschichte.hu-berlin.de/rezensionen/type=rezbuecher&id=10706 [German]; Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, “‘Doppelte’: deutsche Gesandte in Kairo 1953-1963,” in Wajih Atek and Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, eds., Misr wa Almaniya fi al-Qirnain at-Tasi’a Ashara wa al-’Ishrin fi dhau al-Watha’iq (Egypt and Germany in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries as Reflected in Archives) (Cairo: Dar ath-Thaqafa, 1998), Part 2, 212: “NSDAP Member List of 10/20/52.” [German]
[9] US National Archives II, RG263, CIA Name/Subject Files, B12, Report on Leers, Cairo 09/19/56, 1.
[10] Ibid., Regional Security Officer, Memorandum on Cesar Ugarte, Odessa, Nazis, Lists, Cairo 04/29/65, 1-8; Amin al-Husaini, Muzakkirat al-Hajj Muhammad Amin al-Husaini (The Memoirs of al-Hajj Muhammad Amin al-Husaini), ed. Abd al-Karim al-Umar (Damascus: Al-Ahali, 1999), 177. [Arabic]
[11] Simon Wiesenthal, Ich jagte Eichmann (I Haunted Eichmann) (Gütersloh: Mohn, 1961). [German]
[12] Heinz Schneppen, ODESSA und das Vierte Reich (ODESSA and the Fourth Reich) (Berlin: Metropol, 2007), 19: Counter Intelligence Corps, Alleged Member of ODESSA Group, German Source, 02/19/48. [German]
[13] Ibid., Ambassador Report, in 5-6/42 “disgusted Rommel sent Rauff home, proposed capture Jews of Cairo,” Cairo 06/01/45, 2.
- See more at:
http://jcpa.org/article/wolfgang-g-schwanitz-on-nazis-on-the-run-how-war-criminals-escaped-overseas-via-italy/#sthash.1Je6Bw4Q.dpufGerald Steinacher, a historian from the west Austrian town of Innsbruck, is known for his solid research on the federal state of Tyrol under the Third Reich. His new book reconstructs how Nazis fled from Europe via Italy to South America after the end of World War II. The author also claims that his research proves that stories about a secret organization of former SS members are nothing more than a myth. According to this thesis, ODESSA, the Organisation Der Ehemaligen SS Angehörigen (organization of former SS members), did not exist. Before dealing with this finding in the context of the Middle East, an overview of the book is in order.
Steinacher first discusses the southern escape route
via Rome to Genoa and other Italian towns. He then explores the
mechanism of obtaining a new identity through Red Cross papers, and
details how Vatican circles provided assistance. The reader learns all
about the “Rat Run” from Germany through Italy and finally to the safe
haven of Argentina. Italy, Steinacher notes, was Europe’s backyard. But
it was also, like Spain and Portugal, the Middle East’s front yard.
Three major organizations helped the Nazis escape
from Europe. The Catholic Church believed this effort would contribute
to the “re-Christianization” of Europe and feared the threat to Europe
of paganism and communism. In the pursuit of its political and spiritual
interests, it was quick to forgive Nazi war criminals. The CIA, in the
context of the Cold War, was eager to do business and assist former
Nazis, such as Klaus Barbie. In addition, the International Red Cross
demonstrated great sympathy for war criminals and issued some
twenty-five thousand identity documents. Steinacher deals with all this,
but some earlier organizations for helping Nazi fugitives are missing
such as Edelweiss, Spinne, and Sechsgestirn.
Steinacher also defines three Nazi groups: those who
(a) committed suicide at the war’s end or later, (b) were indicted or
punished, or (c) fled overseas, mostly to Argentina. The real numbers
are not available. The author estimates that 180 leading Nazis emigrated
to Argentina. Others speak of about three hundred to eight hundred
making their way to that country. Uki Goni reported that Argentina still
protected about forty-nine files of Nazi immigrants in 2003.[1]
Recently, the independent German researcher Volker Koop estimated that
six hundred Nazis emigrated to Argentina including those with expert
knowledge.[2]
Information for the Middle East, which is not a main
topic of this book, is hard to find. We know of three dozen cases of
Nazi immigrants – in North Africa including Algeria and Tunisia, in Arab
neighbors of Israel, and in Saudi Arabia and Iran. Indications also
point to Afghanistan and Pakistan.
For 1964 onward, estimates of the number of Nazis
living in Arab countries climb beyond three thousand with Egypt as their
main destination. This may be valid if one includes professional
experts and advisers, technicians, and physicians, such as Aribert Heim
who died in Cairo in 1992 but became the subject of news reports only in
2008. In addition, for the Middle East, there are other categories of
former Nazis such as: (d) combatants who fought in wars in 1949, 1956,
or 1964 in Palestine/Israel, Egypt, and Algeria, (e) bureaucratic
“shadow warriors” in fields of security, prison administration,
education, and propaganda, (f) military experts, and (g) diplomats. For
lack of archival access, and because many changed their names when
converting to Islam, especially the “shadow warriors” are difficult to
trace.
Clerical Collaborators
Steinacher similarly describes “de-Nazification
through conversion” to Catholicism as a means of obtaining assistance.
He notes the role of the pro-Nazi bishop Alois Hudal and of the
monastery escape route. Hudal tried to build bridges between the Nazi
ideology and the Church.[3] In 1937, he sent his book The Foundations of
National Socialism to Hitler. The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem sought a
similar ideological convergence; as early as 1937 Hajj Amin al-Husaini
appealed to all Muslims to cleanse their lands of Jews.[4] The Nazis
made a booklet of his appeal, added a section on Islam and Bolshevism,
and translated it for their Muslim soldiers.[5]
However, there was a difference between these
clerical collaborators with the Nazis. Whereas Hudal said that fighting
Jews as a race was anti-Christian, al-Husaini aspired to fight them as a
race. According to Hudal’s ideological reasoning, a conflict could be
settled if ideologies became compatible. According to al-Husaini’s
racist approach, the conflict was existential and could only end by the
annihilation of the other side, which could never change its race.
As for Nazi military experts (category f), Cairo
employed two units as advisers from 1949 to 1956. Ex-general Wilhelm
Fahrmbacher led a group of military experts called “Armed Forces” with
thirty-one men, and Wilhelm Voss of the Nazis’ wartime Škoda factories
(he was not one of Hitler’s adjutants as claimed on p. 290) led the unit
called “Research Center for Explosives and Weapons” with fifteen men in
1953.[6] Their numbers grew, but their contracts were not renewed when
the Egyptians became aware that Israel had forged links with them for
spies such as Max Bineth. These developments were intertwined with
Israel’s Lavon Affair, which involved faulty espionage actions in Egypt
and led to Defense Minister Pinhas Lavon’s resignation in 1954. The
affair also gave Gamel Abdel Nasser a pretext to overthrow and succeed
President Muhammad Najib.[7]
However, with Argentina hoping to attract up to half a
million Germans right after the war, and President Juan Perón’s former
Nazi experts building the country’s first jet fighter, the Pulqui II, in
1951, an example was also provided for the Arabs. President Nasser
hired the aircraft designer and manufacturer Willy Messerschmitt and the
missile expert Wolfgang Pilz, who in 1964 got Egypt’s first jet
fighter, the Hulwan 300, airborne. Since Messerschmitt’s company also
maintained a presence in Spain, Nazi circles there connected with Cairo
as well. When the project ran short of money, India ultimately took over
key parts for its Marut 24 jet.
As for the category of former Nazi diplomats (g),
this is usually disregarded though it is a missing dimension at least
for the Middle East. Some rebuilt old networks. For his part, Chancellor
Konrad Adenauer insisted on reemploying so-called indispensable experts
despite their Nazi backgrounds. Too many became envoys of the Bonn
Republic – an outrage that had long-term results. In 1947, West Germans
drew up a list of 576 names as candidates for their future Foreign
Service. Indeed, that number of people staffed the service until the end
of 1952. Of these, 195 had been Nazi Party members, 158 were from the
old Foreign Ministry, and fifty-seven had had involvement with the
Middle East.[8] More research on these diplomats’ ties with emigrant
Nazis and their Islamist counterparts is required to substantiate the
long-lasting “Brown-Green” relationship.
New evidence has emerged on how these individuals
overtly and covertly interacted. Steinacher mentions the 1974 movie The
Odessa File based on the book by Frederick Forsyth that appeared two
years before. Steinacher warns against falling for a myth that there was
one organization under this cover name (7, 16, 296). So far the
author’s main thesis.
But here is the problem: beginning in the late 1940s and for the
Middle East in the mid-1950s, American agents reported on ODESSA and
also pointed to tripartite circles of ex-Nazis in South America, the
Middle East, and Europe. After the fall of Perón’s regime, the Argentine
haven became less hospitable and some ex-Nazis took jobs in the Middle
East often with al-Husaini’s support.
For example, the odious agitator Johann von Leers
moved from Buenos Aires to Cairo to work in anti-Israeli campaigns
sponsored by Nasser’s circle and the Arab League.[9] He met men of the
former Third Reich such as Anwar as-Sadat, who had been a spy for the
Nazis, members of the two above mentioned units (category f), and many
(e) “shadow people” in Middle Eastern bureaucracies.
American intelligence services monitored Nazi
organizations that spanned those three regions. They mentioned, for
instance, “List 1″ of two thousand ex-members of the SS and the Gestapo,
of which the most important ODESSA members were also on their Most
Wanted list. Intelligence reports since 1964 often named ODESSA
networks. Leers was said to be the new regional leader of the Spider Web
network, as it was also known, in Cairo, and former SS colonel Otto
Skorzeny was said to be its leader in Spain. In Cairo, al-Husaini met
with Skorzeny in early 1953 to work out weapons deals.[10]
An Outstanding Contribution
Three conclusions emerge. First, ODESSA was very much
a reality and an operational term for American intelligence since 1947
when it appeared for the first time in reports. To what degree Simon
Wiesenthal contributed with his related reports to the Americans remains
an open question.[11]
Although Steinacher is correct in including all the
regional networks in his purview, he is not right to claim that ODESSA
was nothing but a myth. To maintain this thesis one needs to prove
hundreds of American intelligence reports, which used the term ODESSA,
to be wrong, or one has to allege that those reports were just
inventions by agents. ODESSA was at least a roof network or common
operational platform of cooperating individuals and groups just as
Steinacher characterizes the networks (259). He mentions Heinz
Schneppen’s book on ODESSA but does not discuss his main arguments in
detail, although Schneppen offered examples of early texts on ODESSA
such as the U.S. intelligence report of 26 February 1948.[12]
Second, for the Middle East one needs to include the
Middle Eastern Brown-Green webs of ex-Nazi diplomats and their Islamist
counterparts. Not only the Americans utilized ex-Nazis for intelligence
and anticommunist purposes. The Muslim leaders did the same, but they
also wanted the ex-Nazis’ anti-Jewish know-how for the struggle against
Israel. In the Middle East, the Nazis’ influence, and the camaraderie
with them, never ceased. This influence was also “diplomatically
rebuilt” by the old-new envoys of Bonn (g) and passed down through the
generations.
As Steinacher shows in a notable example of these
interactions, former SS colonel Walter Rauff, hidden by Bishop Giuseppe
Siri of Genoa, fled to Damascus in 1947. In late 1949 he used a Red
Cross document and the fake name Bauermeister to flee from Genoa to
Ecuador. There he worked for the Bayer Corporation and became a “rat
runner.” In 1960, he visited his homeland under his real name. During
the war, if General Erwin Rommel had been victorious, Rauff would have
led an SS unit with the purpose of rounding up the Jews of Cairo and
later of Palestine. Rauff also invented the mobile gas vans that killed
thousands of Jews, and after the Eichmann trial he was indicted for
crimes against humanity,[13] prompting him to flee to Chile. Governments
there protected him from further prosecution, and in 1984 he died
peacefully in Santiago. His funeral became a gathering of old Nazis who
greeted each other with “Heil Hitler!”
Finally, in another representative case, Steinacher
notes that Skorzeny introduced Willem M. Sassen, a war reporter and
wanted SS man, to Eichmann in Argentina in 1954 (248). Eichmann had
arrived there on 14 July 1950 (296) as “Ricardo Klement, technician,”
carrying Red Cross papers. Hudal’s circles had assisted him in his
escape route. Thus, all of the above-named groups contributed to this
endeavor. There are also new indications that Simon Wiesenthal
discovered Eichmann’s whereabouts in 1953 and proposed capturing him in
Argentina in 1954. Why this actually took place six years later is
another matter.
All in all, Steinacher’s fine book provides much
insight and the possibility to draw comparisons with related
developments in the Middle East and elsewhere. For instance, there are
many parallels and common characteristics between the functioning of
Al-Qa’ida and of the networks of Alte Kameraden. Steinacher clarifies
how the southern escape route worked, including the role of its
unrepentant operators. Nazis on the Run is an outstanding academic
contribution.
* * *
Notes
[1] Uki Goni, ODESSA (Berlin: Assoziation A, 2006), 9-10. [German][2] Volker Koop, Hitlers Fünfte Kolonne. Die Auslandsorganisation der NSDAP (Hitler’s Fifth’s Column: The Foreign Organization of the NSDAP) (Berlin: Bebra, 2009), 260. [German]
[3] Alois Hudal, Die Grundlagen des Nationalsozialismus (The Foundations of National Socialism) (Leipzig: Günther, 1937). [German]
[4] Muhammad Sabri, Islam-Judentum-Bolschewismus (Berlin: Juncker-Dünnhaupt, 1938), 5-21 [German], therein also the chapter by Amin al-Husaini, “Islam-Judentum,” 22-32. The chapter’s subtitle is “Aufruf des Großmuftis an die islamische Welt” (Appeal by the Grand Mufti to the Islamic World). [1937, German]
[5] For instance, for Bosniaks in SS units: Veliki Muftija Jeruzalimski: Islam i Židovstvo (The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem: Islam and Jewry) (Zagreb: Croat Printing, 1943). [Serbian]
[6] Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, Deutsche in Nahost 1946-1965 (Germans in the Middle East 1946-1965) (Munich: Haensel-Hohenhausen, 1998), Vol. 1, 208: “List of experts in both units, Cairo 04/30/53.” [German]
[7] For more, see reviews by Wolfgang G. Schwanitz of Shabtai Teveth, Ben-Gurion’s Spy: The Story of the Political Scandal That Shaped Modern Israel, in Orient, 38 (1997): 3, 567-570, and of Khalid Muhi ad-Din, Wa al-An Atakallamu (Now I Am Talking), in Der Islam, 73 (1996): 2, 360-363.
[8] See my review of the biographical handbook of the German Foreign Service at
http://hsozkult.geschichte.hu-berlin.de/rezensionen/type=rezbuecher&id=10706 [German]; Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, “‘Doppelte’: deutsche Gesandte in Kairo 1953-1963,” in Wajih Atek and Wolfgang G. Schwanitz, eds., Misr wa Almaniya fi al-Qirnain at-Tasi’a Ashara wa al-’Ishrin fi dhau al-Watha’iq (Egypt and Germany in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries as Reflected in Archives) (Cairo: Dar ath-Thaqafa, 1998), Part 2, 212: “NSDAP Member List of 10/20/52.” [German]
[9] US National Archives II, RG263, CIA Name/Subject Files, B12, Report on Leers, Cairo 09/19/56, 1.
[10] Ibid., Regional Security Officer, Memorandum on Cesar Ugarte, Odessa, Nazis, Lists, Cairo 04/29/65, 1-8; Amin al-Husaini, Muzakkirat al-Hajj Muhammad Amin al-Husaini (The Memoirs of al-Hajj Muhammad Amin al-Husaini), ed. Abd al-Karim al-Umar (Damascus: Al-Ahali, 1999), 177. [Arabic]
[11] Simon Wiesenthal, Ich jagte Eichmann (I Haunted Eichmann) (Gütersloh: Mohn, 1961). [German]
[12] Heinz Schneppen, ODESSA und das Vierte Reich (ODESSA and the Fourth Reich) (Berlin: Metropol, 2007), 19: Counter Intelligence Corps, Alleged Member of ODESSA Group, German Source, 02/19/48. [German]
[13] Ibid., Ambassador Report, in 5-6/42 “disgusted Rommel sent Rauff home, proposed capture Jews of Cairo,” Cairo 06/01/45, 2.
* * *
PROF. WOLFGANG G. SCHWANITZ is a historian of the
Middle East and German Middle East policy. He is the author of four
books and the editor of ten others, including Germany and the Middle
East, 1871-1945 (Markus Wiener, 2004).
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